Chapter 3 – Cognitive development

 

Presentation

A few days after being born, the infant already is an active explorer of his/her environment. He/She will start making sense out of it very soon. How does a child explore and organize such environment throughout childhood? We will try to answer this question in this chapter.

 

Objectives

• Know the basics of cognitive development in a child from zero to three years.
• Know what cognitive processes a child uses to discover his/her environment.

 

 

3.1. Senses

How does a newborn understand the world into which he/she is born? Through information. In order to do so, two processes are needed: sensation and perception.

 

Differences between Sensation and Perception

There is a big difference between sensation and perception. According to Stassen and Thompson, sensation is produced when a sensor (sense) detects a specific stimulus. Whereas perception takes place when the brain tries to integrate these stimuli in such a way that the individual becomes aware of them.

Let us see the development of each sense individually from the first days:

 

 

• Sight is the least developed sense in an infant. However, the infant can see significantly better than we thought some years ago.

 

 

 

• Babies can focus at an approximate distance of 20 to 70 cm.

 

• Their sight at a distance is bad and blurry.
• It can be said that babies are programmed to see at a distance where mother-child exchanges take place.
• After a year, an infant can focus on the same distances an adult can. Two reasons explain this improvement: The eye structures that enable a correct focus (lens and ciliary body) have improved, and the brain structures in charge of sight have matured.
• Babies have no sense of depth during the first months. Binocular sight is not developed until the third month. This skill matures when the infant starts crawling.
• By 8-12 weeks they should start following with their eyes people or moving objects. At first, infants have to move their whole head to move their eyes, but by 2-4 months they should start moving their eyes independently with much less head movement.
• Colors are present since birth. At four or five months, they can tell apart most of the usual colors.
• Babies prefer stimuli with a contrast rather than plain stimuli. They prefer to look at shiny, moving, noisy objects.  It must be highlighted that the infant is not only looking for complexity. He/She also enjoys observing all those things that can stimulate him/her in ways different from the usual ones. It is important to add that you also prefer to look at new things.
• Babies have a favorite: the human face. Babies can spend many minutes looking at their mother’s face while they are playing with her.

1. B)  Hearing The quality of hearing is better than seeing. It can be said that babies’ hearing is similar to that of adults, although it improves during development.

• Babies show special interest in human voice. From the first weeks, they can recognize voices from their family, and tell them apart from other people’s voices. They can even tell whether those people are using their parents’ language or a different one.

 

Development of hearing

(M.P.Downs. Hearing in children. Salvat.BCN.1981)

1. a)  Phases of development in the location of sound
2.     Left   to Right    Eye movement      12 weeks

 

2.     Left   to Right   Head movement      16 weeks

 

• Up to the 36th week, the infant keeps improving at locating the source of sound. After the initial eye movement comes the cervical tonic reflex by which movement of the head is developed. Head movement, as a response to sound stimuli, is performed at a straight angle from the ear or slightly downwards. Head movement will follow the sound stimulus if produced at shoulder’s height.
• In general, it can be said that 60% of children locate sound first on the right side, then on the left side.
• In all cases and phases, sound is located first downwards and then upwards.

 

1. b) Hearing stages

 

Age	Reactions—Behaviors
0 to 14 days	Infant startles at a sudden, loud noise. Infant blinks at a sudden, loud noise. Infant stops shouting when mother starts talking to him. Infant moves when asleep if he/she hears noise nearby. Infant stops sucking noises when he/she hears sound or mother speaks to him.
1 month	Infant changes his/her behavior because of a loud noise. Infant calms down when mother comforts him/her. First differences in the use of voice.
2 mo.	Infant listens to a little bell’s tone. Infant looks for the source of familiar sound with his/her eyes.
4-6 mo.	Infant locates a lateral, downwards source of sound (5m.) Infant listens to a tuning fork’s tone. Infant stops crying when he/she listens to music.
7 to 9 mo.	Infant reacts to name. Infant consciously locates sound laterally and upwards. Infant observes adults talking. Infant carefully listens to a clock’s tic-tac nearby (9 meters.)
3 semester. At 10 m.	Infant stops shouting when mother starts talking to him. Infant seems aware of his/her mother’s voice. Infant sleeps regardless of noise. Infant wakes up when you touch his/her bed.
10 mo. to one year	Infant understands “No” prohibitions (10 m.) Infant listens to a soft song at one meter and looks for it. Vocal reaction when he/she listens to music. Infant reacts to name with low voice.
2.5 mo. to 6 mo.	Infant looks towards the speaker. Infant is happy when there is music. Infant stops moving when he/she hears something interesting. Infant knows his/her name and smiles when called. Infant makes searching movements as long as there is sound. Infant hears the rattle when lying on his/her stomach.
18 mo to 36 mo	Infant distinguishes between normal and angry speech. Infant understands the meaning of “here,” “look,” “listen.” Infant points at people and related actions (3 to 5.) Infant understands “on top, underneath, inside, outside.”

 

1. C) The other senses

Feeling, tasting and smelling have not been studied as in-depth as seeing and hearing. Feeling is extremely developed in babies. But taste is not perfect in an infant, although it is known to work roughly. Smelling is slightly better than tasting, especially when the infant is used to a smell. Taste and smell improve during the first months and will continue to do so during the first year of life.

 

Warning signs for hearing loss
(Adapted from S. Burdo.Varese CI Center)

From birth to three months of age:

• No reaction to loud noises.
• Loud noises and voices do not wake him/her up.
• No reaction to his/her own voice.
• His/Her own voice does not sooth him/her.
• No smiling when you talk to him/her.

 

From three to six months of age:

• No turning of his/her head or looking towards the source of sound.
• Noisy toys do not attract him/her.
• No emission of guttural sounds to call for attention.
• A loud voice does not startle him/her.

 

From six to 12 months of age:

• No response to his/her own name or to people’s voices.
• No babbling, not even when alone.
• No playing with vocalizations or imitating the adult’s vocalizations.
• Unable to locate daily sounds or familiar words.
• No understanding of a negation or farewell unless an indicative gesture is used.

 

From 12 to 18 months of age:

• Unable to follow simple instructions.
• No frequent use of words he/she knows.
• Vocabulary under 10 to 15 words.
• He/She does not say “Dad” or “Mom.”
• No pointing to familiar objects and people when mentioned.
• No naming of familiar objects.

 

From 18 to 24 months of age:

• No understanding of simple questions and is unable to answer “yes” or “no.”
• No understanding of simple sentences.
• No pointing to images when asked.
• No paying attention to tales.
• No understanding of simple orders when no gestures are used.
• Unable to identify his/her name.
• Unable to make two-word sentences.
• Unable to identify the parts of the body.

 

From 24 to 36 months of age:

• He/She understands “not now” and “enough.”
• He/She chooses objects by their size “big,” “small.”
• He/She understands many verbs meaning action.
• His/her words are unintelligible.
• He/She does not repeat sentences.
• He/She does not answer to simple questions.